Aristotle
He is called The Master. The Teacher. The Philosopher of philosopher’s. Histories greatest minds revere him as the smartest to ever walk this earth. He’s the father of modern science. The founder of logic and the king of rational thinking. His theories and observations on everything ranging from zoology, biology, physics, mathematics, ethics, storytelling, and debate bear relevance to this day. No man has ever been his equal. Dante, the author of The Divine Comedy praised him as “the master of those who know.”
Let’s talk about Aristotle (384 – 322 BC)
Life and Background
Aristotle was born in Macedonia; Greece’s neighbor in the north. His father served as the king’s physician. King Amyntas III was the father of future king Philip II and grandfather of future emperor Alexander the Great. Philip II would conquer most of Greece under his name. Alexander would succeed Philip II and keep Greece pressed under his thumb and conquer most of the known world. Their “achievements” would cement both men into the annals of history. But their incursions in the Greek speaking polis would drastically complicate Aristotle’s life.
Even at an early age, his budding intellect made Aristotle a known prodigy. When he turned 18 he traveled south to Athens and enrolled in Plato’s Academy. Plato, like everyone else recognized the abundance of talent teeming in the mind of his precocious student. Despite 50 years separating teacher and student, Plato understood that this Macedonian was destined to surpass him.
The pupil of Socrates elevated Aristotle to the status of a fellow teacher. A bold decision given that the Greeks, and Athenians in particular harbored strong prejudice toward Macedonians. They were seen as savage, uneducated, often described as “the barbarians from the north.”
Plato and Aristotle clashed more than they got along, according to historian Will Durant. But other historians concede that the two actually shared a magnanimous relationship. Aristotle’s publications reveal a progression and modification of Plato’s ideas. Any diversion came primarily from the source of their world perspective. Plato embraced the supernatural. Mysticism and religion were the forces guiding his strongest opinions. But Aristotle explored earthly phenomena through practicality, common sense, and logic. The legendary painting School of Athens by Raphael Urbin beautifully captures this distinction between teacher and pupil. Plato the elder raises his hand to the skies, evincing his heavenly nature. Aristotle gestures to the floor illustrating his more grounded mode of thinking.
When Plato passed away Aristotle left Athens. Several years passed and the teacher received an unexpected summons. King Philip II instructed Aristotle to return to Macedonia and to serve as his son Alexander’s personal tutor. Alexander, the teenager became Aristotle’s most famous pupil. Many of Alexander’s most distinguished generals future rulers of nations would fall under Aristotle’s tutelage.
After Alexander completes his education Aristotle abandons Macedonia to return once again to Athens. It is here where he erects his own school of philosophy. He names his academy the Lyceum, a grand institution housing philosophical study and discussion. Aristotle enriched his students with a sundry of subjects such as anatomy, physics, zoology, astronomy, ethics, politics, economics, and psychology. But as his school thrived, the city of Athens fell under conquering hand of Alexander the Great. During his campaigns in Persia the Athenian people had to bear the humiliation of Macedonian troops occupying their streets and public institutions. Further fomenting Athenian vitriol against the northerners. To Macedonians residing there, the tension was in the air and it was unmistakable. It formed something of an ominous cloud that Aristotle felt hanging over the school and himself.
Yet in light of these unwelcome conditions, Aristotle’s work thrived. It is here that he would produce the greatest discoveries and observations of any singular person in history. In this post, I break down his most salient takeaways; divided into 6 sections. Let’s begin with his loftiest achievement to date… the creation of logic.
I. Logic and the Significance of the Word
To say Aristotle wanted to know the answer to everything is no exaggeration. He did. But he specifically wanted to know how things come into being and how one thing changes into another. He wanted to know how time, motion, space operate in relation to each other. He reasoned that the answers to these questions were stored away in a repository of hidden knowledge. Another way to describe this is to think of a cave where knowledge is stored. It exists. But the cave has not yet been discovered because it doesn’t dwell in the realm of the physical. It resides in a separate realm and it can only be found by using the mind.
If this is confusing then think about it this way. Math exists. Numbers and equations are an objective feature of the universe. If there were no humans math would still exist. Humans discovered mathematics, they did not invent mathematics. Aristotle argues that humans are the only animal capable of using its mind as a tool to tap into these discoveries. Unlocking the code to mathematics is the equivalent of finding our way to this imagined repository where all knowledge lies.
So how de we use our minds to discover things like science, art, music, eternal truths etc? The way to break through requires the use of rational and pragmatic thought. A simple, step-by-step process of contemplation that when drawn on paper almost appears mathematical in structure. This method of comprehensive reasoning is what he dubbed logic.
He believed one could employ logic and find any answer across any field of study. His most widely known version of logic is known as Syllogism. Syllogistic logic refers to a system of reasoning that involves a stated truth which is then followed by a conclusion or endpoint. In mathematical terms we call this the transitive property. Here is an example…
1. Plato is a man; and all men are animals; therefore Plato is an animal.
The above example implicates great significance on word choice and the manner in which they are ordered into a sentence. To some that sentence mirrors a mathematical equation. And this is the point. To Aristotle, we unravel earths riddles by writing down our thoughts. They become words and words are like numbers. If a term means A, then it cannot mean B just as 2 can only equal 2. You can’t look at the number 2 and think it is actually 3. Words are objective, like numbers. They are the most valued tool in our arsenal to explain worldly phenomena. The word is so critical in our examining of life’s mysteries that its importance is even stated in the Bible.
“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God”
– The Book of John
That quotation pays homage to Aristotle’s use of logos, or logic through the written word. It is widely believed that the 4th and final Gospel was heavily influenced by Aristotelian philosophy. The first iteration of John was written in Greek.
Aristotle believed people should be very precise in their word choice. When people engage in discussion or debate, they should properly define their terms. Disagreement and miscommunication often stem from one or both parties misconstruing the other’s use of certain words.
II. History of Greek Science Before Aristotle
In Greece, and pretty much everywhere else in antiquity, the mystical and supernatural explained away most scientific theories. It wasn’t until about 100 years before Aristotle that the Greeks developing a natural explanation for worldly phenomena. They were the first people whom we know that shifted toward this more pragmatic view of theory and observation. A new cadre of brilliant Greeks emerged as a result and broke ground with their monumental discoveries.
1. Thales theorized that the stars and sun were great balls of fire instead of gods and spirits
2. Anaximander postulated that life began at sea and then wandered onto land
3. Anaxagoras confirmed the cause of lunar and solar eclipses and discovered photosynthesis
4. Empedocles found that organs in all living things adapt over long stretches of time to continuously stay ahead in forever changing environments. A process we might call natural selection.
Aristotle and Science
His strides in zoology and marine biology are among his greatest accolades. His observations and theories in this field outpaced anyone up to that time and for a millennium to pass. The scope of Aristotle’s scientific research is astonishing. Much of it is concerned with the classification of animals into genus and species. He compiled a list of more than 500 species. He describes in meticulous detail their diet, habit, and anatomy. He documented the biological components of insects that are so minute they would not be observed again until the invention of the microscope in the 1600’s. Here is a list of takeaways from his notes…
1. Birds and reptiles are structurally very similar
2. Man is mammalian
3. Monkeys are the link between man at one end and 4 legged mammals on the other end
Upon observing hundreds of embryos, including human embryos (the first man in recorded history to do so) he observed that all organisms share universal characteristics at the embryonic stage. Diversification occurs after birth. Despite observance of these similarities at the embryonic state, he just missed the next step in observation which might have led him to the theory of evolution.
III. Aristotle and Ethics – What Constitutes the Best Life?
To understand Aristotle’s theory on finding happiness which he equates to fulfillment versus a momentary sensation of pleasure, there are two philosophical terms regarding ethics that we must first address.
1. Teleology – Judging the purpose or value of a choice only by its end results. Another way to think of this is deciding that throwing your boss a compliment was worth it only because he or she then promoted you.
2. Deontology – An action or process that is judged on the basis of its own merits, regardless of consequence. Under this principle, stealing your friend’s apple is morally wrong even if your friend never discovers the missing fruit. Aristotle believed humans should embrace a mixture of both terms to live the best and happiest life.
Man is the only animal that can think. And because thought is his most significant tool; the continuous development of thought engenders wisdom. Wisdom is the best gateway to happiness. But to be happy, humans must also be good. It is impossible to be really good without wisdom or to be really wise without moral virtue.
Happiness is achieved when rational thought lives in accordance with virtue.
The Golden Mean
The best way to be virtuous is to ride “the golden mean.” This can be interpreted as walking the middle path where one never veers too far into extremities on either end. Here are some examples…
1. Courage is the central point that rests between rashness and cowardice
2. Liberality is the medium between stinginess and extravagance
3. Ambition is the balance of greed is sloth.
4. Self-control lives in the middle of impulsiveness and indecisiveness.
The middle path is a very difficult line to tread. It requires hard work and the steady cultivation of good habits. Our greatest fault as individuals and as societies occurs after we plunge into the pit of one extreme. In our haste to dig ourselves out we often over correct by leaping headlong into the opposite extreme.
“We are what we repeatedly do, excellence then is not an act but a habit.” – Aristotle
IV. Aristotle and Politics
The teacher and his students analyzed the governmental systems of 158 states. When considering which government “works best” he postulated that one must pinpoint the positive and negative elements across existing constitutions and determine which system contains the best factors. He believed that there was no “objectively correct” form of government for all. People can live happily under a sundry of government structures. It depends on which form is best suited to the unique environment of each state.
He empathized with Plato’s preference to contain power only among the smartest. But he differs from Plato in that he recognizes the value and skills inherent in the masses. He does not view the majority as useless. He believes all people have something of great worth to offer as long as they work hard and embrace personal growth.
In theory, the best form of government would be what he called a Constitutional Democracy. Where those who wield the reigns of power are voted in by the consent of all people. In this system, there is mutual respect shared among everyone. There is no resentment or contempt in the eyes of one group toward the other. The community is upheld by a firm base of trust and magnanimity.
A Liberal Democracy is a system bound by laws agreed upon and cherished by all. This in turn means the power of government will be limited and disbursed but not to the degree of Athen’s direct democracy. To maintain stability and repulse revolutionary fervor, the onus falls on each generation to teach their children to embrace the state’s constitution and past traditions. The last major component of the Constitutional Democracy is that it should make room for competing political factions to hold civil debates in a common forum in order to achieve consensus. Healthy and peaceful debate will generate wisdom, critical thinking, and nuance. Great societies flourish when it encourages the rational human to use its mind as a tool. In this vein, he believed that voting should still be restricted to only those individuals who are well versed in political matters.
He comes very close to brandishing the word “meritocracy.” I think Aristotle would have marveled at the free markets of the United States. The idea of private ownership of capital was unsavory to him. He could not have comprehended in his day that it would result in millions of citizens chasing their interests which essentially produced the greatest hub of innovation ever seen. But in Aristotle’s world the economy ran on slavery and the industrial revolution which gave rise to capitalism stood 2 thousand years away.
On the topic of being trapped in one’s time, Aristotle did believe that slavery was necessary as some people were inferior to others. He believed as well that women were handicapped by their biological underdevelopment. Their best hope lay in marriage to a man where they could serve as his indentured servant. He lived in the 4th century BC where these views were ubiquitous so judgement here should be withheld.
Aristotle and Free Will
Aristotle’s theory of free will is a mixture of autonomy running into a determinist roadblock. He argues that humans are free in as much as they can choose a path but external forces constrain them by only offering a finite set of paths.
V. Aristotle and God
Aristotle believed that all things are in motion and that all living organisms are always seeking to improve, to metamorphosize into something superior to its current constitution. This transformational process is powered by motion which is the link between cause and effect.
In order for A to evolve into B, there must be something that creates A. That thing is what Aristotle calls the original form called matter. It is the most fundamental component of the universe and the basis to which all things, living and inanimate come into being. For there to be a baby, there must first be an embryo. When a child is born, the child is the form and the embryo is the matter. The embryo undergoes a transformation via motion toward a more intricate form of being – the child. Each thing is always trying to move into the best version of the next thing.
Aristotle argues that this is how all things operate in the universe. When the form dies it falls to its menial beginnings, and the cycle repeats. The universe and everything in it is chained to this endless cycle. But since life is composed by continuous cause and effect there had to be a first cause. This begs the question, what caused the first cause? If in the beginning there was nothing, then how can nothing will life into the universe? The only rational explanation is that there must exist an external providence outside space and time. It is this divine entity that set the universe in motion when there was nothing. This version of God he dubbed “the unmoved mover.” An immaculate being that is timeless, shapeless, eternal, and perfect. Logic suggests that God is the beginning point to which all things came into being.
Historians and Theologians to this day consider this theory the primary and most cogent explanation for the existence of God formed entirely through logic and reason and void of any reference to the supernatural or religious.
VI. Aristotle and the arts
Aristotle loved artistic expression, particularly storytelling and theater. It was customary for Athenians at this time to spend an evening at the iconic amphitheater and immerse themselves into the world of myths and playwrights. The most popular of which were the famous greek tragedies. Aristotle suggested that through tragedy we undergo a process called catharsis. The arc of a tragedy begins when great fortune blesses the protagonist. His happiness is short-lived. It turns to ash and through hardship and struggle he loses everything in the end. You see this play out in modern storytelling. In Titanic, Jack and Rose form a loving relationship which is then torn apart when the vessel sinks. Tragedies are told in this order because it allows us to purge, or cleanse negative emotions like melancholy, fear and heartbreak from our minds. When they are gone, we are left with the grace of our happy thoughts.
VII. Death and Legacy
When Alexander the Great died in 323 BC Athens celebrated the occasion as a holiday. They were free from the ilk of Macedonian rule. And so they turned their ire toward those Macedonians living in the city. Aristotle saw at once where the wind was blowing and he absconded without a moment’s hesitation. The teacher supposedly claimed that he saved Athens from “sinning twice against philosophy.” An overt reference to Socrates.
Poor health overtook the philosopher and he died only a few months later in 322 BC. His death marks the end of the great era of Greek Enlightenment. The torch of Greek thought gave way to Roman domination. Rome valued strength above all else. The art of philosophy passed into a dark age of sorts. The light of which would not be reignited until the European Renaissance 1800 years later. All of Aristotle’s writings vanished after his death and wouldn’t be seen again for another millennium. We have enough of his surviving works to fill 4 thousand pages. But historians believe this only comprises 20% of his writings. The rest are lost to history. What is not lost however is the recognition of tremendous debt western civilization owes Aristotle.